Taken together, these findings challenge the existing theoretical accounts of the RAN–arithmetic fluency relationship and suggest that, similar to reading fluency, multiple processes underlie the RAN–arithmetic fluency relationship. In addition, RAN continued to predict addition and subtraction fluency even after controlling for all other processing skills. The results indicated first that RAN was a significant correlate of arithmetic fluency and the correlations did not vary as a function of type of RAN or arithmetic fluency tasks. A total of 160 third-year kindergarten Chinese children (83 boys and 77 girls, mean age = 5.11 years) were assessed on RAN (colors, objects, digits, and dice), nonverbal IQ, visual–verbal paired associate learning, phonological awareness, short-term memory, speed of processing, approximate number system acuity, and arithmetic fluency (addition and subtraction). Thus, the purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to examine how RAN (numeric and non-numeric) predicts a subdomain of mathematics (arithmetic fluency) and (b) to examine what processing skills may account for the RAN–arithmetic fluency relationship. However, the nature of their relationship remains unclear. Rapid automatized naming (RAN) has been found to predict mathematics. Altogether, results indicated that children understand yesterday better than tomorrow due to the increased cognitive demands involved in reasoning about future events. Across sentence types, forward temporal reasoning was easier for children than backward temporal reasoning. In Experiment 4, 3- to 5-year-olds completed tasks requiring either forward or backward temporal reasoning about sentences referring to before, after, yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Children tended to select pictures depicting the outcome of actions regardless of tense or temporal adverb, whereas adults’ judgments were based on temporal adverbs. In the next two experiments, 4- and 5-year-olds (Experiment 2) and adults (Experiment 3) completed the same task but with sentences containing conflicting temporal information (“I carved the pumpkin tomorrow”). Children performed better with past tense sentences than with future tense sentences, and including tomorrow in future tense sentences increased accuracy. In Experiment 1, 3- to 5-year-olds viewed two pictures of an object with a visible change of state (e.g., a carved pumpkin and an intact pumpkin) while listening to sentences referring to past or future actions (“I carved the pumpkin yesterday” or “I’m gonna carve the pumpkin tomorrow”) and selected the matching picture. Better performance in these 2 tests was associated with vitamin B-12 in APOEε4 carriers but not in APOEε4 noncarriers.Ĭonclusion: The association between vitamin B-12 and cognitive function was moderated by APOEε4 status.A picture–sentence matching task was used to investigate children’s understanding of yesterday and tomorrow. Significant interactions between natural log-transformed vitamin B-12 and APOEε4 were also found for the Digit Span Backward Longest Sequence ( P for interaction = 0.013) and Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test immediate recall ( P for interaction = 0.005). Vitamin B-12 (natural log transformed) was positively related to MMSE score, and this association was much stronger in APOEε4 carriers than in APOEε4 noncarriers ( P for interaction = 0.016). Results: APOEε4 was associated with a lower MMSE score. The interaction of vitamin B-12 and APOEε4 on cognitive function was examined in a linear mixed-effects model for MMSE and in a multiple linear regression model for neuropsychological test scores. The MMSE was repeated at a median 18 mo ( n = 376) and a median of 38 mo ( n = 247) after baseline. Objective: The aim was to investigate the role of apolipoprotein E ( APOE) ε4 as a genetic predisposing factor modulating the effect of vitamin B-12 on cognitive function.ĭesign: A battery of neuropsychological tests, including the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) for global cognition, was administered at the baseline assessment to 539 Chinese adults aged ≥55 y. Hence, it is important to further examine this gene-nutrient interaction. Limited evidence suggests that the relation is modulated by apolipoprotein E ε4. Background: The relation between vitamin B-12 and cognitive function in older adults is unclear.
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